The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) – a system of ocean currents – is often described as the heart of the ocean’s circulatory system, pumping warm water northward and cold water southward across the Atlantic. The AMOC drives global climate stability, and if it falters, the impacts will likely ripple across continents—from intensified storms in Europe to disrupted monsoons in Africa and rising sea levels in the U.S. East Coast. In short, the stability of the AMOC is a global concern.

The AMOC runs on a finely tuned balance of temperature and salinity. Warm, salty water flows north from the equator, cooling and sinking in the North Atlantic before looping back to the Southern Hemisphere. Rising atmospheric CO₂ levels disrupt this balance, while melting ice sheets in Greenland are flooding the ocean with freshwater that dilutes salinity, potentially weakening the current. Although the AMOC naturally fluctuates, research published in Nature indicates it has weakened by about 15% since the 1950s.

Recent academic estimates diverge—some suggest a potential collapse by mid-century or even as early as 2037, while others argue that such a collapse is unlikely within this century—highlighting the complexities of climate modelling. Tipping points represent thresholds beyond which gradual changes accelerate into irreversible shifts. Even under optimistic scenarios that avoid a complete collapse, significant disruptions are expected. If the AMOC weakens, it will likely profoundly disrupt weather systems, food production, and coastal infrastructure. Monsoon failures, heatwaves, and flooding will become more severe, hitting vulnerable communities hardest, thereby triggering economic and political instability.

To briefly recap: In climate science, a tipping point is a critical threshold whose overshooting leads to major and often irreversible changes in the climate system. The behaviour of tipping points can be found in many ecosystems, in ice caps and in the circulation of the ocean and atmosphere. The tipping points of the Greenland ice sheet, the West Antarctic ice sheet and the boreal permafrost have received increasing attention in recent years. Once a tipping point has been reached, it is self-perpetuating. Tipping point systems are believed to be inter-related and thus affect fundamental elements of Earth’s climate system. The domino effect of several tipping points will have a massive impact on human society.

The Chain Reaction of AMOC Collapse

Think of the AMOC as a critical link in a chain of interconnected climate systems. As the AMOC weakens, other systems are affected. For example, Europe’s mild winters might shift toward conditions resembling those of Siberia, with temperatures in the UK dropping by as much as 7°C. Regions dependent on consistent rainfall—such as the Sahel and India—could experience severe drought. A slowing Gulf Stream, which currently moderates temperatures along the U.S. East Coast, could lead to more frequent and severe hurricanes. Additionally, rising sea levels may inundate financial hubs from Miami to London, and disrupted nutrient flows could severely impact fisheries.

When speaking to us, Juliane Mirow, Junior Researcher in Climate Change, Health, and Resilience, mentioned the considerations of the health dimension in the context of the AMOC: “There is no robust evidence base for the societal or health impacts of an AMOC collapse. However, based on modelling studies and expected changes in weather patterns, some potential effects can be inferred. Existing climate-related health risks—such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases linked to extreme temperatures, in both directions—may intensify. Infectious disease patterns could shift, with tropical diseases declining in Europe due to less favourable conditions for certain disease vectors, while illnesses like the flu and common cold may increase. Beyond direct health impacts, for example, due to extreme weather events, psychosocial risks—including trauma, stress, and anxiety—are expected to be significant. Broader societal challenges may arise, affecting emergency medicine, food security, disaster response, healthcare system resilience, infrastructure, democracy, and social cohesion due to rising polycrises.”

The economic costs are daunting, especially because they are so unpredictable. In agriculture, droughts could reduce yields and increase food prices globally. Insurance markets, already grappling with climate risk, would face overwhelming claims from storm damage and flooding. Climate-driven migration would further strain political systems and social cohesion. Thus, investors and businesses alike should start integrating AMOC-related risks into financial models due to the complex, non-linear interactions that climate systems have with financial markets.

When speaking to us, Nicola Steen, Founder and CEO at Encompass, mentioned the importance of understanding the AMOC, as well as all other climactic crises and tipping points, as deeply interconnected: “Understanding the AMOC and other climatic tipping points is essential for building sustainable economies that can endure unexpected events and protect common goods. People fear change, but change is inevitable, so our goal must be to ensure that the outcomes of these shifts leave society in a stronger position.”

Data as the Foundation for Understanding Risk

While current trends suggest a weakening of the AMOC, the theory of imminent collapse remains debated. This is due to limitations in long-term observational data, differing model sensitivities, and natural variability in ocean systems. Enhanced observational infrastructure and refined models are critical to improving our understanding of AMOC dynamics and reducing prediction uncertainty.

Ocean systems are complex, and long-term, high-resolution observations are crucial for distinguishing natural variability from genuine signs of systemic breakdown. Improvements in satellite technology, autonomous ocean sensors such as the UK’s RAPID-Evolution, and advanced climate modelling are critical tools for refining our understanding, but should also be continuously tested due to the challenges of these tools to capture variability across depths and latitudes.

Better data will help scientists validate predictive models, refine tipping point thresholds, and inform more effective climate policies. Without a strong empirical foundation, debates about AMOC stability will persist—and uncertainty itself carries significant risks when timely action is required. As such policymakers and key stakeholders alike should prioritise more funding for good research which can clarify our remaining questions and improve our predictions.

Practical Steps to Mitigate AMOC Risks

Similar to other climate tipping points, to slow the weakening of the AMOC, it is imperative to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide and methane. Transitioning to renewable energy sources like wind and solar power, implementing carbon capture technologies, and enforcing a global carbon pricing system are key strategies, but will require of faster, more pronounced implementation if we want to ensure the AMOC does not collapse in the coming quarter of a century.

Similarly, phasing down fossil fuel subsidies will also play a critical role. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions could potentially slow future warming and mitigate ice melt in Greenland, thereby contributing to the stabilization of ocean currents. However, the effectiveness and timing of these measures in directly influencing AMOC behaviour remain uncertain. Mitigation efforts should be part of a broader climate resilience strategy that also addresses other critical drivers of climate change and potentially inevitable consequences.

The Arctic and Antarctic act as sentinels of the AMOC system, and preserving these regions is vital. Limiting black carbon pollution, which accelerates ice melt, can be achieved through cleaner transportation and industrial practices. Enforcing strict regulations on shipping emissions and adopting cleaner energy for Arctic communities are actionable measures, but require collaboration. Additionally, expanding marine protected areas will safeguard fragile ecosystems and buffer the impacts of climate change, however, this will require engagement between key national authorities and the private sector.

Developing a comprehensive, real-time monitoring network for salinity, temperature, and current strength in the Atlantic will enhance predictive models. Deploying more autonomous ocean buoys and leveraging satellite data can provide continuous insights into ocean behaviour. Funding international research collaborations will ensure a broader data-sharing framework, improving early warning systems and the ability to anticipate sudden changes in the AMOC.

Additionally, the use of innovative techniques, such as that done by studying clam shells, using autonomous underwater gliders or employing machine learning techniques with high-resolution global models and AI-driven parameterizations, will help accelerate our knowledge production to better predict and establish what should be done in the likely case the AMOC reaches its tipping point. The UK Government and others have already started funding research not only on the AMOC but on all factors which are related to it, such as ice melts and expected consequences, and other countries, especially those expected to suffer the biggest consequences such as the Nordics, should too.

Communities vulnerable to the impacts of AMOC disruption must also consider resilience. Coastal cities can invest in sea walls and natural barriers like mangroves to mitigate flooding risks. Water management strategies that conserve resources and ensure sustainable agriculture can reduce the impact of changing rainfall patterns. Developing climate-resilient infrastructure, such as elevated roads and flood-resistant buildings, will safeguard livelihoods and reduce economic shocks. Nonetheless, scientists agree that just adaptation is not a viable option, and that conducting research and taking steps to minimise this risk is the only possible priority.

Climate change knows no borders, and the AMOC is a “global commons” requiring collective stewardship. Strengthening international climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, and fostering new accords between key actors like Nordic countries focused on ocean health will be essential. Collaborative initiatives, like transatlantic climate research programs, can pool resources and expertise. Moreover, coordinated policies on emissions reduction, deforestation prevention, and ocean conservation will amplify efforts to protect the AMOC. This collaboration is not unique to governments and multilateral institutions, as the private sector has an incentive too to ensure the AMOC’s tipping point is not reached.

The Stakes Couldn’t Be Higher

A weakened or collapsed AMOC would reshape the climate in ways that defy political boundaries. Unlike local weather changes, this is a planetary-scale threat with no simple fixes once the tipping point is crossed. The cost of inaction likely far outweighs the investment needed to prevent catastrophe, and policymakers must weigh the risks of these uncertainties against the potential consequences of inaction.

The time to act is now. Decisions made today will determine whether we preserve the stability of the AMOC—and with it, the stability of the world’s climate. The window for prevention is closing, but science and innovation offer tools to meet this challenge if we choose bold, collective action that prioritises research and climactic sustainability.